Dying of Breast Cancer in Early America an Example of the Topic Health Essays by

Dying of Breast Cancer in Early America American Experiences (7th edition) by Randy Roberts and James S. Olson primarily focuses on how its people act against America. It shows how people dealt, bent and resisted in contrary to their nation. The readings look at every person on how they carried their work, how they perform their play, revolutionized and loved, subsist and died. It is the story of American people. It illustrates every single action or steps on how a person acts. One of the reading articles I am interested in is about the Wounded and Presumed Dead: Dying of Breast Cancer. I have searched for the past accounts in early America during any interval up to 1950 about the womens incident of breast cancer. In the article, the author cited many persons, for example, Adams family, who suffered from the disease. Although there's an actual occurrence of the disease which has swelled over the past two decades, it still very hard to find confirmations on how women deal with breast cancer. In contemporary times, it is difficult to find out how a woman suffers from the disease, how do they cope and how do they survive, if ever. Coded materials are hard to locate recognizing breast cancer on a person. Also, there's no concrete evidence showing that a person died from the breast cancer alone because of people at that time also suffered from different kind of cancer not only breast cancer. Mainly, a disease is recognized with just an intelligent guess, not in a scientific diagnosis. By that time, people mainly rely on the traditional process of detecting an illness since medial breakthroughs have not yet unveiled. Need essay sample on "Dying of Breast Cancer in Early America" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed People Very Often Tell EssayLab professionals: How much do I have to pay someone to write my essay today? Essay writer professionals propose: Collage Papers For Sale Essays Online For College Write My Paper For Cheap Cheapest Essay Writing Company If we assume that this disease really affected women, then, by what percentage among women is affected? One percent, two percent or five percent? How do we know? People could conclude that a certain disease is really a breast cancer due to the fact that the time is assumed to be "breast cancer occurrence". Also different diseases scourge the people. What if it is tuberculosis, cancer or anything? Besides, in the article, it is hard to conclude that breast cancer really developed from a breast cancer itself. In short, the strikes of the disease on a person are just a story of a person. How could we assure that his story is really true? Here say is difficult to justify that it is really true. In the other side, if it happened, the procedure on operation is very unethical. In one story, the process of treatment seems to be inhuman, treating a person like an animal. It says that there was no anesthesia or any other pre-operation procedure for the pain to minimize. In fact, the surgeon just heated metal spatula for the wound to stop bleeding. The amputation procedure is ruthless. The process should not be like this for it treat a human just a swine where you can do butchery without even mercy. Also, the process shows that the person has no more dignity and worth. Moreover, after the brutal treatment of the patient, you will suddenly know the outcome was very disappointing where the disease was not cured after all possible treatments were done. Imagine how the patient underwent treatment such as amputation and the result is not a success. How atrocious! The worst case is where the disease grew and got bigger. A patient suffered from the great pain of the human operation. Yes, at that time there existed no safe surgical operation, but the way a physician handle the patient is very immoral. Besides, as the article says that in the process of operating the patient, the operational equipment is not sterilized. Meaning, the tools are not safe in operation. I think that time doctor or surgeon has already the concept of clean operation. As a doctor, he must know it beforehand. It just reflects the true image of operation procedure as well as the overall approach of surgeons as well as doctors towards their surgical procedure. This single procedure will reflect, in general to the actual operation how doctors treat their patient. Reference Roberts, R., & Olson, J. S. (2007). American Experiences In (7th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 113-120). United States: Longman Pub Group.

Proctors Problem essays

Proctor's Problem essays Throughout the history and evolution of man, the human mind has progressed in ways that no other species has ever experienced. Beginning with the development of fire, to the feudal age, through the enlightenment and the revolutions, and coming now into the era of technology, humans have developed into the dominant species on this earth. However, people have been forever plagued by human nature and human flaws. There are certain emotions that human brains feel that are natural, and are therefore unexplainable. Although humans are the only species of animal to civilize and to have a recorded history, they are also the only species to wage war and kill unjustifiably. Men experience things such as hate, revenge and lust, things that drive us to do things that hurt us as a civilization. No one can escape these things though, no matter how hard they try. In some way everyone is affected by their flaws. In the book and play The Crucible, by Arthur Miller, human flaws are brought out into t he light in this true account of a sad time when people let their fear and emotions take control, and ended up killing nineteen innocent individuals. John Proctor, a local farmer has, with his actions, become one of the most important individuals in the tragedy that occurred in Salem. Because he did not control his natural urge of lust, he provoked vengeance and hate, ruining his life and everyone else's who was close to him. Although he started out as a sinner by taking Abigail to bed, he redeemed himself by becoming a saint, and dying for the cause of proving the town accusers wrong. In his transformation, from sinner to saint, Proctor reveals his strengths and weaknesses as he faces his moral dilemmas. Before the book even begins, John Proctors weakness takes control of his morals. He, in blind lust, sleeps with his housekeeper, Abigail. When Elizabeth, finds out, she kicks Abigail out of the house, but not before Abigail is so obsessed with Jo...

Mediterranean fruit fly Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Mediterranean fruit fly - Assignment Example Most countries which have been infested have had both successful and unsuccessful eradication programs. New Zealand too has a Biosecurity system which renders protection against such invasions and has been so far successful in keeping the country free from these pests. The main aim of this paper is to understand what the Biosecurity system and policies of the country are effective at during incursion responses and suggest ways in which such responses can be strengthened to ensure better protection against bioinvasions of the Mediterranean fruit flies. There are various kinds of fruit flies found in different regions of the world. The ones belonging to family Tephritidae are considered the true fruit flies. The most important members of the family are the Bactrocera sp and the Ceratitis sp. The Mediterranean fruit fly is binomially known as Ceratitis capitata and ranks among the top most destructive agricultural pests. Its origins lie in tropical Africa but today it is found around the world and is not only highly destructive but is highly invasive as well (Huang et al,2009,p1239). The med fruit fly can be easily distinguished from any other fruit flies because of its characteristics. An adult fly is slightly smaller when compared to an adult common housefly. An adult fly measures about 3-5 mm. The body is straw yellow in color with brownish tinge. The thorax is off-white in color. It bears some marks on the wings but the most prominent one the presence of a broad yellow band across the middle portion of the wings. It also has ocellar bristles (bristles present on the dorsal part of the head) and its eyes are purplish in color. The adult male flies can be segregated from the female flies because the presence of a long pointed expansion on the top of the orbital setae (present between ocelli and eyes) (IFAS,2010). The life history activity of Medfly is dependent on temperature and it completes its life cycle under optimum conditions of temperature. The

Creative Method of Reflexivity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Creative Method of Reflexivity - Essay Example Since I feel the term â€Å"great leader† has been taken from a myth, which the parents and junior schoolteachers love to tell little kids. And even the different theories penned down by scholars about leadership can only be viewed as their fantasies and aspirations about how a leader should be. Disclaimer: All of my above criticism applies if I limit my scope to the political and societal big wheels of the current world only. I may be a cynic but I do whole-heartedly respect the leaders of once upon a time. The god sends that saved and made nations. Therefore, to the keep the derision out of my journal, I’d rather focus on my journey on the leadership trail as I relate my days to the class lectures and discussions I participate. Dated: September 9, 2011 Entry 2 – My Leader After attending each lecture on leadership, I get home with a new picture of leadership in my mind. From the books I’ve read I’ve learnt that to lead one shall be determined, foc used, reliable, decisive, enthusiastic, and courageous and the list goes on. And above all a true leader must possess the charm to draw attention, to create followers and to instigate a movement. Just thinking about the ingredients of perfect leadership creates an image in my mind. A man (no offense meant to females here, since I know leadership exists in the bearings of a human irrespective of sex, class, race, age or nationality) who looks physically fit, standing impeccably dressed facing an expectant crowd with honest, experienced, intelligent eyes, bearing a smile full of promise and unswerving confidence. This is my leader. If we try to fit a face into the picture my mind conjured up, Mr. Barack Obama may be the most likely candidate. Although I’m not in accord with his political motives and certain decisions he makes as a politician, I have high regard for his commitment to his people and country. A black presiding over a nation of whites certainly puts to proof the gr eatness of this man. Fear of social acceptance, I believe, is a fear not so easy to surmount. I wonder if Mr. Obama ever saw that as an obstacle. An average person would surely be traumatized at even the prospect of standing up to be elected as a prospective leader and anticipate acceptance from the very people whose ancestors had been compulsive racists. But Mr. Obama is not an ordinary man. He never was. Dated: September 17, 2011 Entry 3 – Perceptions My last entry dated September 9 helped me sketch out the leader I aspired to have to help me bring about the changes I want in the world around me. When I reread that entry two days ago I got fascinated about the leader figures that inhabit the minds of people around me. I sent messages to my friends and family via cell phone asking who a leader is or placed the question when I met them in class or at home. The one-liner statements they gave are not their comprehensive descriptions of a leader surely, but they presented me wit h interesting angles to â€Å"Aspired Leaders†. Relative 1: â€Å"One who can influence the decisions made by others.† This image on the right definitely goes with the description presented by my relative. There is no greater influence than influence at the point of a gun. Ironically, the

Research a Fortune 500 company Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

A Fortune 500 company - Research Paper Example Introduction Wal-Mart is regarded as an American based multinational retail business corporation. It is one of the top companies which regained its position in the Fortune 500 list as per the 2012 report. The company emphasized providing quality products to the customers at a reasonable price which supported it to regain its position in the market (Duke, 2012). The management and the marketing strategies that adopted and used by Wal-Mart have a great impact on its increasing sales and the revenue earned. The foremost reasons for the success of Wal-Mart include its effective management, making deliberate efforts to attain its vision and growth among others which are in turn providing the business of the company an edge over others. Management and Marketing Strategies Wal-Mart developed a business model which focused on providing greater satisfaction to the customer with the deliverance of low price products to them. The management of the company followed upon developing its marketing mix strategy. In terms of analyzing management strategies of Wal-Mart, it can be viewed that the management of the company took steps to offer reasonable prices to the different product ranges that they deliver to the customers. The management segments the product type based on the buying capacity of the individuals. In relation to marketing strategies, the company emphasized promoting its broad assortment of products through using hoardings, leaflets and offering special discounts. In this regard, it can be affirmed that the management of the company desires to attract the customers by creating a positive brand name and recognition in the business markets where it operates. Relating to marketing strategy, the management team of the company developed a slogan as a way of promoting its varied products i.e. "Everyday Low Prices."Â   Continuous innovation and the use of technology for making the customers more satisfied are the other managerial approaches that used by Wal-Mart. It can be apparently observed that technology innovation at Wal-Mart typically involves process and service invention that helps in reducing operational costs and time at large. In this context, the management followed three policy goals i.e. respect for individuals, facility to customers and determination for excellence (Hayden et. al., 2002). Different Business Life Cycles that Endured By Wal-Mart The Prosperity Phase- This phase is regarded as the growth phase of any company which is marked by strong economy and market presence. In this similar concern, Wal-Mart maintained this particular phase by offering "high-quality," along with branded products at low prices and also by forming several stores in small towns. Wal-Mart uses the discount merchandising strategy in order to increase the demand and the sales of its products and hence accomplished superior competitive position over others. In relation to this particular phase, the company is growing rapidly due to diversification strateg y that it follows and expanding its outlets in small towns. Another reason for the company to flourish in this modern business market is focusing on delivering high customer services. Due to excessive demand of the products, the management of the company absorbed more employees during this phase (Hayden et. al., 2002). The Recession and Recovery Phase- This is the business phase which exhibits expansion by a significant level. This particular pha

Effectiveness Of Biologigal Wastewater Treatment Environmental Sciences Essay

Effectiveness Of Biologigal Wastewater Treatment Environmental Sciences Essay Wastewater treatment is a serious environmental concern due to the hazards of discharging poorly treated effluent to the environment. Poor wastewater treatment poses a pollution threat to receiving water bodies, groundwater pollution, soil contamination and resulting loss of biodiversity (Mantila, 2002). Dandora Estate Sewerage Treatment Works treats on average 62,000m3 per day annually of wastewater from Nairobi city and its environs through biological treatment and will form the study area. The population targeted in this study is wastewater received and treated at DESTW. The purpose of this study is to find out the effectiveness of biological wastewater treatment and the pollution potential of DESTW activities to the environment. An experimental research design will be used to determine the wastewater characteristics and contaminant removal while a descriptive design will be used to determine the environmental implications of wastewater treatment. The instruments used in the study are observation, laboratory experiments, leopold matrix, network analysis, and impact characteristic analysis. Data analysis will be done using both inferential and descriptive statistics. Wastewater treatment has been defined as the process of removing contaminants from wastewater produced by both domestic and industrial sources (Tchobanglous, 1993). Its objective is to produce treated effluent and sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment which is achieved through physical, chemical and biological processes. The issue of wastewater treatment and disposal assumed increasing importance in the early 1970s as a result of the general concern expressed in the United States and worldwide about the wider problem of pollution of the human environment, the contamination of the atmosphere, rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater by domestic, municipal, agricultural, and industrial waste (Oswald, 1996) A great deal of wastewater treatment plants are scattered all over the world and until recently not much scientific attention was given to these plants. They were considered to solve local problems so specific that one did not want to think it worthwhile to discuss design and operation of them in international fora. However, the interest shown for the 1st International Specialized Conference on Design and Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants (Trondheim, 1989), and the IAWQ Specialist Group on the same subject (formed in 1991), demonstrated that there is a need to discussion on international scale the strategies for planning and the technical development of such plants. The reason for this interest must be found in the abundance of cases around the world where small wastewater treatment plants have to be put in operation to prevent environmental pollution and hazards. There is a global shift from the traditional centralized wastewater treatment system to locally based wastewater solutions (Hallvard, 1993) following the UN Decade for Water and Sanitation recommendations. The need for good solutions for wastewater treatment plants is therefore crucial in many developing countries. Developed countries mainly use mechanical and chemical treatment processes which though requiring less land are very expensive to establish and maintain. Alabaster (1994) cites that many developing countries favour the use of biological treatment which uses wastewater stabilization ponds since climate favours its operation and it is a low-cost, low-maintenance, highly efficient and natural method of wastewater treatment. The Dandora Sewerage Treatment Works (DESTW) which treats wastewater from Nairobi city and its environs uses biological treatment. However, due to stricter discharge standards set by National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), DESTW is increasingly falling short of those standards. Parr and Horan (1994) highlight three principal reasons for wastewater treatment plants failure: a lack of technical knowledge, failure to consider all relevant local factors at pre-design stage and inappropriate discharge standards. Mara (1992) cites the following broad impacts to the environment due to poorly treated effluent: pollution of receiving aquatic water body, groundwater pollution from seepage of effluent, soil pollution from dumping sludge and health impacts from drinking contaminated water or food grown by the same water. 1.2 Problem Statement The problem under investigation in this study is the effectiveness of biological treatment in removing contaminants from wastewater and pollution potential of DESTW activities. Factors making the problem a critical issue to warrant research are: the physical treatment unit at DESTW has not been operational for the past four years; all pond series apart from series 3 and 5 lack anaerobic ponds; closure of series 8 due to water hyacinth infestation may overload series 7; lack of pretreatment facilities in many industries that discharge into the Nairobi city sewer network may reduce treatment effectiveness; and the environmental implications of groundwater pollution by effluent seepage and soil pollution by dumping of toxic sludge. Purpose of the Study Based on the problem stated the purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of biological treatment at removing contaminants from wastewater through empirical method of inquiry and propose sustainable methods of improving treatment effectiveness at DESTW. This study also aims at identifying the potential impacts to the environment resulting from DESTW activities and proposes methods of mitigating negative impacts based on findings. 1.4 Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are as follows: To analyze the composition of wastewater received at DESTW To analyze the effectiveness of contaminants mass removal at DESTW To determine the pollution potential in relation to activities of DESTW To identify alternative uses of treated effluent 1.5 Hypothesis There is a positive relationship between the functioning of biological treatment and the quality of effluent at DESTW. 1.6 Significance and Justification of the Study This study addresses gaps in knowledge that exist in biological treatment effectiveness in treating wastewater from Nairobi, sewage effluent has long been cited as the cause of Nairobi River pollution, this study will quantify the extent to which effluent from DESTW pollutes the river. By addressing the above gaps in knowledge, the study will add to the body of knowledge in the field of wastewater treatment in Kenya. This study is important since the results will influence future environmental policies on wastewater management, recommendations will propose sustainable methods suitable for Kenya of further treating the effluent to ensure compliance with discharge standards, and they will also propose methods on improving existing methods of treating wastewater e.g. by harvesting methane gas from anaerobic ponds to provide electricity for running the physical treatment works. The findings and recommendations will mitigate negative impacts to the environment as a result of DESTW activities. Beneficiaries from findings of this study are the community surrounding DESTW who will enjoy cleaner groundwater resources and decrease health risks from eating vegetables grown by effluent or eating fish caught from oxidation ponds. Downstream users of R. Nairobi will enjoy cleaner river water which will decrease prevalence of waterborne diseases. DESTW will benefit from this studys recommendations by increased environmental compliance and they will also cut down on operational costs through generating electricity from anaerobic ponds methane gas. Researchers will benefit from this studys findings which will form background information and methodology reference for future related studies. Policy makers will use the findings and recommendations of this study in formulating policies for wastewater management in Kenya. 1.7 Limitations and Assumptions Limitations Length of the study was limited to 3 months from January to March 2008 where data was to be collected. To overcome this limitation, data for previous years was obtained from the DESTW database. Breakdown of some laboratory machines hindered analysis of samples e.g. water distiller breakdown prevented analysis on some days due to lack of distilled water. Lack of a permanent vehicle at DESTW prevented final effluent sampling on some days. Assumptions It is assumed that the reagents were not contaminated. It is assumed that the measuring equipments were calibrated properly. It is assumed that sampling and storage cans were kept clean to prevent sample contamination. 1.8 Study Area This study will be carried out at the Dandora Estate Sewerage Treatment Works (DESTW) which treats wastewater from Nairobi city and its environs using biological treatment process. The study area was chosen since it forms a representative sample of Nairobi city wastewaters. Commissioning The first phase was completed in 1977 and commissioned on 1978. The second phase was completed in 1990 and commissioned on 1992. Location DESTW is located at Ruai in Embakasi division approximately 30km from the city center and about 3km off Kangundo road. Access to the plant is on a permanent earth road. The site is approximately 1000ha and the oxidation ponds are on 200ha. Climate The climate is a typical Nairobi climate with temperature ranging between 15-30 degrees centigrade. The average rainfall is approximately 760mm with the most of the rains falling in two seasons, March to May (long rains) and October to December (short rains). Geology, soils and topography The geology of the area mainly comprise of Nairobi volcanics covered by black cotton clay soils. The area is generally flat with Nairobi River forming the north Eastern boundary of the land. Flora and fauna The area is generally arid with scanty vegetation cover, mainly sisal and shrubs. The ponds have attracted crocodiles and hippos from the nearby Nairobi River since they provide habitat and cheap source of food to for fauna and flora. Large colonies of different species of birds such as birds of prey (e.g., buzzard, golden eagle, and barn-owl), garden and woodland birds (e.g., pigeon, crow, and sparrow) water-birds and sea-birds (e.g., heron, swans, kingfisher, and curlew), and game birds such as quail hovered around the stabilization ponds during the day. Mudfish and tilapia fish have also been introduced in the maturation ponds to assist in quality monitoring. Number of ponds and arrangement There are a total of 38 waste stabilization ponds at DESTW which occur in 8 series. Facultative and maturation (aerobic) ponds run in parallel. Only series 3 and 5 have anaerobic ponds. Types of ponds There are three types of ponds at DESTW and these are: Anaerobic ponds- they are 4.0m deep and measure 100m by 100m. They are deigned for organic matter removal e.g. helminth eggs. Facultative ponds they are 2.5 m deep and measure 700m by 300m. They are designed for BOD5 removal. Maturation ponds- they are 1.5m deep and measure m by m. They are designed for nitrogen and phosphorus removal. Pretreatment and flow measurement facilities DESTW has a conventional inlet works where large suspended solids are screened by coarse bar screens before being automatically raked by cup screens. Grit is removed by use of constant velocity grit traps. A venturi flume is provided for flow measurement. CHAPTETR TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Nature of Wastewater 2.1.1 Origin and Quantity Wastewater originates mainly from domestic, industrial, groundwater, and meteorological sources and these forms of wastewater are commonly referred to as domestic sewage, industrial waste, infiltration, and storm-water drainage, respectively(Mara, 1997). Domestic sewage results from peoples day-to-day activities, such as bathing, body elimination, food preparation, and recreation, averaging about 90 liters per person daily in Kenya (Asano, 1998). The quantity and character of industrial wastewater is highly varied, depending on the type of industry, the management of its water usage, and the degree of treatment the wastewater receives before it is discharged. A typical metropolitan area discharges a volume of wastewater equal to about 60 to 80 percent of its total daily water requirements, the rest being used for washing cars and watering lawns, and for manufacturing processes such as food canning and bottling (WHO, 1992). 2.1.2 Composition The composition of wastewater is analyzed using several physical, chemical, and biological measurements. The most common analyses include the measurements of solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and pH (Pena, 2002). The solid wastes include dissolved and suspended solids. Dissolved solids are the materials that will pass through a filter paper, and suspended solids are those that do not. The concentration of organic matter is measured by the BOD5 and COD analyses. The BOD5 is the amount of oxygen used over a five-day period by microorganisms as they decompose the organic matter in sewage at a temperature of 20 ° C. Similarly, the COD is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter by use of dichromate in an acid solution and to convert it to carbon dioxide and water. The value of COD is always higher than that of BOD 5 because many organic substances can be oxidized chemically but cannot oxidize biologically (Curtis, 1992) . Commonly, BOD5 is used to test the strength of untreated and treated municipal and biodegradable industrial wastewaters. COD is used to test the strength of wastewater that is either not biodegradable or contains compounds that inhibit activities of microorganisms. The pH analysis is a measure of the acidity of a wastewater sample. 2.2 Biological Wastewater Treatment 2.2.1 Waste Stabilization Ponds Technology Overview Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are usually the most appropriate method of domestic and municipal wastewater treatment in developing countries, where the climate is most favourable for their operation WSPs are low-cost (usually least-cost), low-maintenance, highly efficient, entirely natural and highly sustainable (Alabaster, 1994). The only energy they use is direct solar energy, so they do not need any electromechanical equipment, saving expenditure on electricity and more skilled operation. They do require much more land than conventional electromechanical treatment processes such as activated sludge but land is an asset which increases in value with time, whereas money spent on electricity for the operation of electromechanical systems is gone forever). WSP systems comprise one or more series of different types of ponds. Usually the first pond in the series is an anaerobic pond, and the second is a facultative pond. These may need to be followed by maturation ponds, but this depends on the required final effluent quality which in turn depends on what is to be done with the effluent: used for restricted or unrestricted irrigation; used for fish or aquatic vegetable culture; or discharged into surface water or groundwater (Horan, 1994). Prior to treatment in the WSPs, the wastewater is first subjected to preliminary treatment à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢screening and grit removal à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ to remove large and heavy solids. Basically, primary treatment is carried out in anaerobic ponds, secondary treatment in facultative ponds, and tertiary treatment in maturation ponds. Anaerobic and facultative ponds are for the removal of organic matter (normally expressed as biochemical oxygen demand or BOD), Vibrio cholerae and helminth eggs; and maturation ponds for the removal of faecal viruses (especially rotavirus, astrovirus and norovirus), faecal bacteria (for example, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp. and pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli), and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Due to their high removal of excreted pathogens, WSPs produce effluents that are very suitable for reuse in agriculture and aquaculture. 2.2.2 Related Research on Biological Wastewater Treatment Mandi (1993) in his comparative study of Wastewater treatment by stabilization ponds with and without macrophytes under arid climate found that ponds using water hyacinth proved most efficient than those using microphytic plants (algae). Howver, the process based on water hyacinth for wastewater purification is faced with two major problems: first the water loss by evapotranspiration reaches 60% during summer time and secondly the development of mosquito during summer time. He however does not address the huge quantities of biomass produced from water hyacinth treatment systems and the resulting increase in sludge deposition rate. Ghrabi (1989) in his experimental study Treatment of wastewater by stabilization ponds application to Tunisian conditions concluded that sediment accumulation occurs mainly in the first pond: the deposition rate is high (5 cm/year). In the maturation ponds, it ranges from 1.3 cm/year to 1.6 cm/year. The first pond can be desludged yearly or once each two years. He however in his study doesnt mention the environmental impacts of sludge to the soil and he also doesnt suggest methods of decreasing the amounts reaching the wastewater stabilization ponds. Jensen (1992) in his study on the Potential use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in Northern environments concluded that wetlands achieve 98% phosphorus removal, 88% BOD removal and 55% nitrogen removal respectively. COD removal was only 64% due to discharge of organic matter that is slowly biodegradable e.g. humic acids. This study however didnt estimate the productive lifespan of the constructed wetlands. 2.3 Problems in Wastewater Treatment and Disposal 2.3.1 Wastewater Treatment Plant Problems Many wastewater treatment plants (WwTP) of all kinds in developing countries do not function properly. Parr and Horan (1994) found that there are three principal reasons for WwTP failure: a lack of technical knowledge; failure to consider all relevant local factors at the pre-design stage; and inappropriate discharge standards. As a result, wrong decisions are often made and inappropriate unsustainable treatment processes are selected and implemented. This is then exacerbated by the absence of any real incentive to operate the WwTP correctly once it has been commissioned. It is therefore essential for the long-term sustainability of WwTP that simple efficient technologies such as WSPs are always considered at the pre-design (or feasibility) stage. An honest comparison of the cost-effectiveness of wastewater treatment technologies will almost always favour the selection of WSPs in warm-climate countries. 2.3.2 Environmental Problems of Wastewater Treatment and Disposal If wastewater is discharged before it is properly treated, it can adversely affect the environment, public health and destinations economic well-being. The cost of these negative impacts can be expressed in monetary, health and ecological terms (Mara, 1997). Mantila (2002) identifies a number of consequences of poorly treated wastewater: Health Impacts from pathogenic bacteria, viruses and toxic algae cause diarrhoea, shellfish poisoning and other diseases; bathing in polluted water causes gastroenteritis and upper respiratory diseases; eating polluted shellfish results in hepatitis, liver damage and in some cases death. Impact on Marine Environment in the form of suspended solids may cause excessive turbidity and shading of sea grasses, produce sedimentation, damaging benthic (bottom layer) habitats and affect anaerobic conditions at the sea bottom; high BOD levels may cause severe oxygen depletion especially in shallow and enclosed aquatic systems such as estuaries that are ideal breeding grounds for various marine species resulting in fish deaths and anaerobic conditions which release bad odors(hydrogen sulfide); adverse nutrient levels cause algal blooms, resulting in the death of coral and sea grasses and eutrophication leading to severe oxygen depletion which kills living resources; many toxic materials and suspected carcinogens and mutagens can concentrate in fish tissue, putting humans at risk when they eat them; metals in specific forms can be toxic to humans and various marine organisms especially shellfish which is vulnerable, in areas with highly contaminated sediment layers; fats, oil an d grease that float on the water surface interfere with natural aeration, are possibly toxic to aquatic life, destroy coastal vegetation and reduce recreational use of waters and beaches. Impact on Groundwater and Water Resources in the form of improper disposal of wastewater can directly impact the quality of an areas groundwater and water resources and since their movements are dynamic, contaminants can spread far beyond the immediate pollution area. 2.4 Wastewater Management Options Oswald (1995) states that the following issues should be addressed before designing an effective wastewater management plan: assess current wastewater management practice before water is discharged to the municipal treatment facility, identification of sources of wastewater, determine whether discharged wastewater quality meets effluent standards, identify whether industries carry out pre-tretment of their wastewater and finally assessing complaints from users of reclaimed wastewater effluent. Once the situation has been assessed, a range of approaches and techniques to deal with wastewater can be considered. Bartone (1996) argues that to ensure effective treatment o wastewater, the volume has to be reduced to prevent overloading of wastewater treatment plants and this can only be achieved at the source through installation of water efficiency equipment e.g. ultra-low flush toilets, spray nozzles, low-flow showerheads, water spigots, all which reduce overall water consumption. Collection of domestic wastewater and transportation to a distant treatment plant is a difficult and highly expensive task, if the catchment area to be served is low in population density (Tchobanoglous, 1993). Onsite treatment of sewage is the alternative and has been applied al around the world for many centuries. However, purification achieved by traditional onsite treatment systems such as septic tanks (DIN, 1993) is rather poor especially with respect to nutrient removal and as a result impacts on the quality of groundwater are inevitable. The basic idea of the biofilter septic tank was introduced by Toshio Yahata (1981) and further developed by Stubner and Sekoulov (1987). The biofilm reactor septic tank has been found to be more efficient (Robert, 1996) and effluent can be reused for irrigating or flushing toilets. 2.5 Conceptual Framework This study is based on the conceptual framework below that aims at optimal use of resources in an environmentally sustainable manner. Stage Description The main sources of generation are households, commercial and industrial sources. This is done through the sewer network in Nairobi and conveyed to DESTW. An annual average of 62000 m3 wastewater reaches DESTW daily It aims at screening solids and grit removal from wastewater stream. Coarse bar screens- remove large suspended solids Medium bar screens remove smaller suspended solids Cup screens- remove finer suspended solids Grit traps- remove grit and sand particles from wastewater Involves use of wastewater stabilization ponds Anaerobic ponds are designed for organic matter removal Facultative ponds- are designed for BOD removal Maturation ponds- designed for nitrogen and phosphorus removal Treated effluent disposed of in Nairobi River Effluent reused for agricultural irrigation and livestock watering. Fig 1: Conceptual framework for wastewater treatment and disposal in Nairobi.(Adapted from WHO,1992) CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design The design used in this research is experimental since analysis of wastewater quality is done in the laboratory. It is also descriptive since the state of the environment and biological treatment process are described. The approach used in this study is deductive since it begins with the perceptual experience and observation of an environmental problem, leads to hypothesis formulation, experimental design, data collection, statistical analysis, theory construction, and finally to explanation. 3.2 Population and Sample Population The population targeted in this study is the wastewater received and treated at DESTW which averages 62,000m3 per day annually. Sample types Grab samples were necessary for parameters such as pH, ammonia, and faecal indicator bacteria. Flow-weighted composite samples were necessary for raw sewage parameters such as electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, Frequency of sampling Raw sewage was sampled hourly because its composition varies considerably throughout the day. Flow was sampled hourly throughout the day. Final effluents were sampled once daily before noon. Pond series were sampled once every week. Nairobi River upstream and downstream was sampled once a week. Data Collection Instruments 3.3.1 Field Observation Environmental impacts will be identified using field observation which will be aided by the following instruments a) Leopold matrix It is a grid-like table that is used to identify the interaction between project activities, which are displayed along one axis, and environmental characteristics, which are displayed along the other axis. Using the table, environment-activity interactions can be noted in the appropriate cells or intersecting points in the grid. Entries are made in the cells to highlight impact severity or other features related to the nature of the impact, e.g. numbers in this study are used to indicate scale in this study. This instrument was chosen for environmental impact identification because it links the action to the impact, shows impact magnitude and significance, and is a good way of displaying environmental impact results. b) Network analysis Networks illustrate the cause-effect relationship of project activities and environmental characteristics. They are, therefore, particularly useful in identifying and depicting secondary impacts (indirect, cumulative, etc). They are drawn by identifying first order impacts first then linking them to second order impacts and third order impacts by use of an arrow. This instrument was chosen for environmental impact identification since it links the actions to the impacts, is useful I simplified form for checking for second order impacts and can handle direct and indirect impacts. c) Impact characteristics analysis It is normally in the form of a summary table and this instrument was chosen for environmental impact identification because it shows impact nature, magnitude, extent/location, timing, duration, reversibility, likelihood (risk), and significance. 3.3.2 Laboratory experiments Experiments were performed to determine the composition of wastewater at DESTW and the mass removal of contaminants from the wastewater. The apparatus below will be used during the laboratory experiments: Plastic sampling cans were used to collect and store samples. A wooden pole with 1cm graduations was used to measure depth at the venturi flume. A refrigerator was used to store samples at below 4 degrees Celsius. Burettes, conical flasks, pipettes, beakers, and digestion tubes were used to hold samples and reagents when analyzing for various parameters in the laboratory. Ovens, digestion blocks, water baths, and fume chambers were used in creating conducive conditions for chemical reactions to take place in the laboratory. Pan balances, beam balances, UV spectrophotometers, atomic absorption spectrophotometers, water quality meters and flame photometers were used to measure values of various parameters in the samples. 3.4 Data Collection Procedures 3.4.1 Laboratory Analysis Procedures Parameters will be analyzed according to Alabasters 1989 Practical Guide to the Monitoring of Waste Stabilization Ponds standard operations manual that was adopted by the DESTW laboratory. a) Flow This will be measured on the raw sewage and final effluents using the venturi flume which is a restriction in the channel carrying wastewater. The formula below was used to calculate flow. Q =2à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡2/3 g CV.CD . b. h3/2 Where Q= flowrate m3/s CV = coefficient of velocity CD = coefficient of discharge b = width of throat (m) h = upstream depth (m) b) COD total and filtered The micro-digestion sealed tube method will be used with potassium dichromate as digestion solution and ferrous ammonium sulphate as titration solution. Procedure 1.5 ml of digestion solution is dispensed into a digestion tube, 2.5 ml of sample is added using a pipette and mixed well, 3.5 ml of catalyst solution (silver sulphate in 2.5 liters of sulphuric acid ) is added, the tube is capped tightly using a PTFE sealing gasket, the tubes contents are then mixed by gentle swirling, the tubes are then placed in a digestion block at 1500 C for 120 minutes, contents of the tube are transferred quantitavely to 100ml conical flask and sufficient water added to a final volume around 25 ml , 1 drop of ferroin indicator is added and the solution mixed well, it is titrated with FAS (N/40) until the faint blue colour changes to red and the value of the titre T ml recorded, a blank titration is carried out following the same procedure but using distilled water instead and the value of blank titre B ml recorded. COD calculated as follows: COD = (B-T) / S ÃÆ'- 1000 mg/l c) BOD total The standard 5 days, 20 0C, BOD bottle test will be used. Reagents Dilution water, ferric chloride solution, manganous sulphate solution, sodium azide solution, alkali- iodide solution, 90 % orthophosphoric acid, N/40 sodium thiosulphate, starch solution. Procedure Dilution water is prepared, sample added and incubated at 200C for 5 days to determine dissolved oxygen, remove stopper from the BOD bottle and 2ml each of manganous sulphate solution, sodium azide solution, alkali- iodide solution, immediately after the addition of alkali-iodide reagent a brown flocculent precipitate forms therefore the bottle is shaken to ensure that all the dissolved oxygen reacts with the reagents, when the floc settles add 2ml orthophosphoric acid and shaken until the bottle contents turn yellow, 205 ml of the bottle contents is titrated with N/40 sodium thiosulp

A Conflict of Cultural Values between Generations Essay

Two generations clash in Hanif Kureishi’s short story, â€Å"My Son, The Fanatic. † Parvez, the father, is an immigrant from Pakistan while his son, Ali, was born and grew up in England. In his adopted country, the father has exerted the effort to imbibe the English values and raise his son the English way; his son, meanwhile, suddenly decides to explore his familial roots and denounce everything Western. The story plays out the generational conflict between father and son in the context of their differing cultural values. Parvez is a good father according to traditional standards as to how a father should be. He grew up in his native Pakistan but left behind his old life when he migrated to England. He is hard-working. He has devoted his life to ensuring his son’s education and supplying his needs. He measures his accomplishments according to his son’s own. With an intelligent son who is also good at sports, he feels he has done well as a father. He is also concerned about Ali all the time. When he senses something wrong with his son, he immediately tries to find out the reasons for the latter’s behavior. While a good father, however, Parvez has forgotten his roots. He has renounced his old religion. He studied in a strict Islamic school as a boy, but has since stopped following its tenets. He is a taxi driver in England now and here, taxi drivers make â€Å"jokes about the local mullahs walking around with their caps and beards. † (Kureishi, 1196). The son, Ali, while he grew up in England, feels alienated with British culture. The story suggests, however, that the alienation occurs at a certain point in his life. The father’s dilemma begins when Ali starts throwing away his old toys, games and clothes. He gives up his sports and old friends, too. It is revealed later on that the reason for these changes is because Ali has embraced Islam. Along with his conversion is the realization that there is too much freedom in the west that is more destructive than liberating to the human soul. He sums up all that is wrong with the western civilization by declaring that â€Å"the west was a sink of hypocrites, adulterers, homosexuals, drug takers and prostitutes† (Kureishi, 1198). Furthermore, he believes that Muslims are being persecuted and thus should declare war against other religions. Ali’s fanaticism causes the conflict between him and his father. The latter begins to feel that his son’s mind has been convoluted with his newfound faith. Parvez tries to understand Ali and hopes to make him realize the wrong logic in his Islamic faith by inviting him out to dinner. It only worsens the conflict, though. Ali chastises his father for drinking and gambling, forbidden acts in the religion. He expresses his disapproval at the fact that his father eats pork in spite his still being a Muslim. Parvez explains his side by telling his son that they are in England now and they have to fit in. Ali, however, could not be swayed in his strong convictions against western civilization. The problem with the west, according to him, is being allowed too much freedom. He also tells his father that he is going to stop going to school because â€Å"western education cultivates an anti-religious attitude† (Kureishi, 1198). This totally crushes the father. After all, he has invested his entire life for his son and Ali’s decision would put to waste his dreams and the long hours he has worked. The story climbs to a climax when Parvez sees his son walking on the street on the poor side of town where there are two mosques. He asks Ali to get into the car. Beside him in the front seat is Bettina, the prostitute whom Parvez has made a close friendship. While Bettina tells Ali about how his father loves him, hoping to engage him in conversation, the son only responds with anger and comments on her profession. His son’s disgust and prejudice against Bettina humiliates Parvez in front of his friend. The night after this incident, Parvez forces himself into Ali’s room while the young man is praying. He kicks and hits him. He is disappointed and desperate with both his son and himself. He thinks that if reasoning with his son would not bring him to his senses, punishing him physically would. The boy, however, does not fight back but instead turns the table upon his father by asking; â€Å"So who’s the fanatic now? † (Kureishi, 1201). The final question which Ali accuses his father with begs an analysis as to who is in the right in the conflict between the father and his son. To Parvez, living in England is an escape from a life in Pakistan which he feels constricted him. To Ali who has become a devout Muslim, everything about England is a contradiction to the tenets of his newfound faith and the country, and others that practice the western culture, is prejudice to people like him. Each one has valid reasons for his actions, but any belief or value that is imbibed and led to the extreme—into fanaticism—could be harmful and cannot be acceptable. The concept of democracy as a western ideal is positive only up to a point as much as Islam is positive until it is taken to extremes. Furthermore, Parvez could not force his own beliefs and values upon his son at his age because Ali has already reached adulthood, that time in life when a person could already think for himself, when his will cannot be controlled as easily as when he was a mere child, and when can no longer be called his father’s child. If Parvez and his son could not meet halfway because they are consumed by their respective cultural beliefs and their fanaticism, they would only be at peace with each other if they learn to accept their differences. Work Cited Kureishi, Hanif. â€Å"My Son, The Fanatic. â€Å"